Statutory interpretation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Statutory interpretation - Essay Example nction of the judiciary is to justify whether a statute contains any such provisions that is violating or can possibly violate the fundamental rights of a common person as it has been enshrined by the constitution of that nation. If judiciary feels that any such provision is present in the statute then it sends it back for required rectification or it may cancel such statute. Additionally, it is the onus of judiciary to see what actually a statute tries to convey and to which extent scope of the statute is expansive so that it can be applied in interpreting the scope of law, while coming up with any judicial decision making process. Due to such capacity of judiciary, in the context of interpreting a statute, statutory interpretation is also referred as â€Å"judicial interpretation.† (Maxwell, 1991, p. 1) â€Å"Statute law is the will of the Legislature; and the object of all judicial interpretation of it is to determine what intention is either expressly or by implication co nveyed by language used, so far as it is necessary for the purpose of determining whether a particular case or state of facts which is presented to the interpreter falls within it. When the intention is expressed, the task is one simply of verbal construction; but when, as occasionally happens, the statute expresses no intention on a question to which it gives rise, and on which some intention must necessarily be imputed to the Legislature, the interpreter has to determine it by inference grounded on legal principles.† (Maxwell, 1991, p. 1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Looking at the history of statutory interpretation we find that since the 6th century onwards in the context determining and interpreting application of the law in the society, with the purpose of solving different disputes, the method of statutory interpretation was considered as the most effective way. Roman legal system of the late medieval that has influenced modern system of legal jurisprudence to a great extent also depended over the process

ODEs and Linear Algebra Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ODEs and Linear Algebra - Coursework Example by differential equations of first or higher order that must be generally or particularly solved to find a certain equation that would potentially describe the behaviour of an object or a particle based on its variable property or set of properties. This notion applies to an aspect in engineering that deals with the task of analysing vessel leaks as in formulating a mathematical model for a leaking process being undergone by a substance that flows out of a crack or fault in the tank so that the flow rate correspondingly affects the depth of such fluid in the tank. The scenario could be interpreted either for a varying volume or a varying liquid depth with time which is often assumed proportional to each other in a differential equation (MIT, n.d., 1). Use your own examples to show how to solve one first order, linear, ordinary differential equation where an integrating factor is needed in the solution. Explain why the integrating factor works and when should this method be used. *The method of using ‘integrating factor’ renders the differential equation exact so that in this form, it would be more convenient to evaluate the differential equation and arrive at the solution. Use your own examples to explain to a first year Engineering student what are homogeneous linear equations and where they are found in engineering. Also explain the analytical methods that can solve them. By the term ‘homogeneous’, linear equations are illustrated in the simple sense of merely being composed of homogeneous differential terms, bearing derivatives of one variable type with respect to another on one side of the equation while the other side of the equation is kept as zero or one with constant term rather than another type of variable. This may be generally exemplified as (Dawkins, 2003 – 2014): Besides their applicability to mathematical analysis of a system that undergoes a leaking process, homogeneous linear equations are extensively utilized in modelling equations

History and Philosophy Essay Example for Free

History and Philosophy Essay The Federalist is the greatest contribution ever made on the Constitution of United States. According to Chief Justice John Marshall in the case Cohen’s v. Virginia (1821) ‘The Federalist is a complete commentary on our Constitution. ’ Since 1790 lawyers, politicians, students and even judges have all studied The Federalist to know more about the Constitutional issues. In United States the ideas of The Federalist are at the heart of the civic culture. Work on The federalist papers was started in 1787 and finished in 1788. It was written to contradict the arguments of the Anti-federalist against the ratification of the U. S Constitution in 1787. This work was originated by Alexander Hamilton who wrote 51 essays of this literature. Another author was James Madison who wrote 26 essays and the remaining were written jointly by the two and by John Jay. Overall, The Federalist comprises of 85 essays written by three authors who wanted to persuade the voters to support them in ratifying the proposed constitution of U. S. In their papers these three people outlined how this new government will operate and what type of government is best for United States. These papers were written and published under the name Publius. Although Hamilton, Madison and Jay had different and at times conflicting ideas about the government they did agree on some important points like, republicanism, federalism, separation of powers, and free government. According to them Republicanism is based on the ‘consent of the governed’ because power is divided between few people who are elected by the public to be on the top. Federalism is power divided between federal government and state government. They are two different powers at different levels and can make decisions separately and directly. â€Å"State governments can neither ignore nor contradict federal statutes that conform to the supreme law, the Constitution. This conception of federalism departed from traditional forms, known today as confederations, in which states retained full sovereignty over their internal affairs† In The Federalist Paper No. 47 Separation of Powers is mentioned as, The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny. Free government was another aspect which was agreed by all three authors of The Federalist. Free government is made up of the remaining three points that have been discussed above, republicanism, federalism, and separation of powers. According to the Federalist, the popular government is the free government, in which, security, property, and liberty of people are guarded by the government. This type of government is so strong that it can protect against the internal and external threats, yet it is sufficiently narrow to prevent tyranny. It can be said that free government was designed in such a manner that it could prevent against the cruelty, of the dictators, to the public. The Federalist Papers served a dual purpose. Where it outlined the requirement for a strong central government, emphasized the weakness of Articles of Confederation, and portrayed the power of the proposed Constitution, at the same time, the paper alleviated doubts about the new federal government becoming too powerful. The authors argued that that the Confederation government was too weak and the new proposed Constitution will never be too strong. The federalist had two main objectives. First, was to convince the people of New York to ratify the Constitution and the second objective was to convince the people of all 13 states to endorse the constitution. A major concern for the authors of the Federalist was federal taxation, which is obvious in their assessment of the Articles and Constitution’s justification. â€Å"At various points, they expounded on the efficacy and fairness of consumption taxes, specifically customs duties. They insisted, however, that the federal government be granted unlimited taxing powers, including the authority to assess domestic excise taxes. Debates over direct vs. indirect taxation received considerable attention, as did the constitutional requirement for tax uniformity† . Nine of the Federalist papers discuss federal taxes and federal revenue topics. Classical Influences in Federalist Papers-Madison James Madison was the fourth President of the United States and was honored with the title of ‘Father of the American Constitution. ’ Madison is the epitome of intellectual forces, which came together in American politics by the end of the eighteenth century. Bernard Bailyn has hypothesized that the classics in colonial America was ‘illustrative, not determinative of thought. ’ To defy this notion and explain Madison’s ability to perform the role of an architect of a system that successfully integrated political and philosophical views, an assessment of Madison’s life and education will be important. A complex synthesis of classical, modern, philosophical, and rational thought has been revealed by the foundation of the American Republic, as well as, the impact of classical antiquity that was considered thoughtfully. In this regard, a combined political wisdom of thousands of years of human experience was reflected by the implementation of the abovementioned complex synthesis for the formation of a system of government. Simplistic theories of interpretation have been defied by a degree of reflection and contemplation that completed that republican government, which is accounted as one of the most purposefully design by the history of mankind. In two years, after the completion of his first year’s exams, the degree was finished by the Madison in English, Greek, mathematics, and Latin. During this time, Reverend John Witherspoon considered Madison as one of his favorite students, and it was an honor as the Reverend was the president of the college. Employing a syllabus that was classical and Christian Witherspoon taught Madison moral philosophies which greatly affected him for the rest of his life. Tangible manifestation in the Federalist Papers was found by the ability of Madison regarding the classical, as well as, modern political philosophy, which was often referred as quasi-Calvinist cognizance. Wherein the plan for a fractured government was described and advocated by Madison. In addition, any individual person or entity sought precluding of usurpation of the power of governance. This theological system of belief also reveals itself in an existing political philosophy. As per the political thinking of the Calvinist, the grace of God is responsible for all the authority. In this regard, due rights are received by both authority and liberty, when the relation between the citizens and rulers is standardized unbridled authority on the part of rulers lead to despotism, autocracy, and tyranny; unbridled liberty on the part of citizens generates into license, revolution, and anarchy. License, anarchy, and revolution have been generated by the unbridled liberty on the part of the citizens. Stewards from the God are found in the rulers, as proper constitution is formed in the government according to the principles of Calvinism. For God’s sake, the highest motives are considered for the obeying of the rulers by the citizens. An example for the understanding of development of the political, classical, and philosophical amalgamation for the debates that were performed during the formation of the American Constitution was presented by a strong proponent of the classics, Calvinist, and the Scottish Enlightenment Witherspoon. The diverse approach of Witherspoon to education provides an important explanation for understanding Madison’s talent of successfully merging classical and modern political theory into a feasible plan for a secure democratic state. In other words, an extensive intellectual focus was maintained by Witherspoon, by which, discordant philosophical, as well as, theological concepts were blended into an educational program effectively and coherently. When Madison came into politics his instant tasks were clear, first he wanted to put up a proposal for a democratic republican government acceptable to the representative body at the Constitutional Convention, and second, to assure the ratification of the proposed Constitution. From an extensive view point, Madison wanted to produce a classic dissertation on the American system of government, which would enlighten future generations about democratic republicanism. Madison was able to attain both of these goals through one channel and that was The Federalist Papers. This information helps in understanding how extensive knowledge of the classics was acknowledged by Madison and the other two authors. In Federalist no. 14 Madison presents a question, which can function as a good outline of his approach concerning the issue of the significance of the classics to the American people: It has been the glory of American people, as a blind veneration for antiquity, custom, knowledge, experience’s lessons, and objections of their senses has not been suffered by them, as the opinions of former times, as well as, other nations have been paid with a decent regard by these people. The Federalist has considered this thinking approach an obvious thing, since ancients have been referenced frequently by Madison, and their strengths and weaknesses have been borne in mind. When Thomas Jefferson sent the published texts of Polybius from France, the issues of the proposed government were considered by Madison, while positive and negative examples were considered and utilized from the ancient sources by him. Therefore Madison opposes the objections of people who mention the example of Ancient Greece as a sign of un-workability of a permanent republic. He argues that Greece was a democratic system that was often confused with a republic; Madison distinguishes between the two by mentioning that a democracy requires the people to be in assembly in order to carry out the business of the state, whereas a republic requires only the assembly of legislative body to work effectively. Hence he includes both democratic and republican doctrines in his government blueprint. The importance of the classics in the American Republic origin was demonstrated by the evaluation of specific sections comprising of papers of the Federalist, and specifically, the Madison. In addition, classical antiquity’s major references were also included in these sections as mentioned before, Madison frequently opted for classical tradition method to convey his political message, yet Madison often referred to antiquity as a negative prototype for a political culture. One area in which Montesquieu’s political philosophy complements Madison’s tactic is the issue of religion. After historical bigotry of the religion was criticized, and trade was meddled with it, it was commented by him that when the established religion satisfied the state, the establishment of another religion is not allowed. In this regard, establishment of any state religion was banned by the framers of the Constitution. Few smart and wise individuals should be communicated with the important political truths for their wise implementation, which was provided by the writings of the political philosopher, as the relationship between the political community and philosophy was considered as volatile. At the same time, harmful truths were concealed from these individuals by these writings as well. This concept was well aware by the student of Montesquieu, Madison. In the result, the classical and modern political philosophy was concealed by the furthering of his project. In this sense, the role of a crucial link in the chain of thoughts of the Romans and Greeks was played by the Madison, who was served by the Montesquieu. Classics are where Madison’s popular audience was at a majority and this is one fact that he used to his benefit in writing The Federalist Papers. In addition, major references to classical antiquity were contained in six out of eighty-five of the Federalist Papers. Passing references and explicit references regarding the specific indebtedness with a clear sign were contained in the twenty-three Federalist Papers. If these facts are considered, the link between classical antiquity and the origins of the American Republic appears to ignore a serious question. Mark Diamond states that the most immediate kind of political work was the Federalist, which was a piece of campaign propaganda. In addition, a view to the permanence of its argument was also provided to thoughtful men. The widest electorate was at once addressed by it, but able and educated men were also considered, by whom, the fate of the Constitution could be determined. Short-term objective was accomplished by the Federalist, in which, public opinion had to be influence with the relation of political system of the United States. Federalist As mentioned before, the people of New York were persuaded by the publishing of the Federalist for the ratification of the Constitution. It also made an attempt to elucidate different provisions of the Constitution and to enlighten the people by giving reasons, as to why other provisions like bill of rights had been excluded. It was argued by the Publius that an exceptional opportunity of reason and choice had by the Americans for the creation of own type of government. In contrast, earlier constitutions were determined by the chance of force. Publius argued that the Constitution shaped a republican style of government which was effective and sound in nature, but yet was controlled by checks and balances Advocates of the American Constitution obtained a strategic advantage over those who opposed it by taking up the name Federalist for themselves and by identifying the adversaries Anti-Federalists. Federalists supported state rule and disagreed with a central national government. By holding the title Federalist, Hamilton and other authors got an additional advantage for their position and got around an extreme conflict over the issue of state versus national power. They emerged as advocates of states rights and this idea was clearly explained in The Federalist Papers, yet they were also evidently advocating for a strong national government. The essays were signed â€Å"Publius† after Publius Valerius who was the state builder and who rebuild the Roman republic following the removing from power Romes last king called Tarquin. Plutarch measured Publius favorably against Solon who was Greeces law giver. And at that instant a modern Publius would have helped erect the new American republic. By opting for a name like Publius, the authors of the Federalist were following a practice which was common among the eighteenth-century writers. The writers used to publish a combined work under a fictitious name instead of a byline. If Hamilton, Madison, and Jay had revealed their identity in The Federalist Papers then they would have been known as advocates of specific positions instead of being recognized by their arguments, and also this would have become a part of the argument over the Constitution. Further more; choosing secrecy was also because of the enmity between Hamilton and George Clinton the New York Governor. Interestingly Hamilton was the single New York ambassador who signed the Constitution. On the contrary, Clinton was an Anti-Federalist who was heading a state where people opposing the new Constitution were in majority. Therefore, opting for Publius was somewhat an effort to shift the discussion away from the personal bitterness between Hamilton and Clinton. As the need of unification has been signified, and the Articles of Confederation had arrears, it was explained by the Publius that a strong republican government was shaped by the Constitution, yet checks and balances controlled it. This type of government, which was strong and had checks, would maintain freedom and assets, and bring back respect for America overseas. Although an un-amended Constitution was opposed by two thirds of the nominated representatives at the New York conventions, the provision of other political writers was done by the Publius. At the same time as replying to explicit Anti-federalist arguments, The Federalist presented an integrated theory of the philosophies upon which the new Constitution was based. History, experience, and reason were the bases of this philosophical foundation, and the long existence of the republican government was verified by this foundation in relation with the examples of failed governments in the past, which were unable to survive. Countering the belief, which is often ascribed to Montesquieu, that republics could stay alive only in small areas taken by identical inhabitants, Madison in The Federalist no. 10 argued that republics could flourish best in large areas where different groups constantly competed with each other. During the constant struggles of these groups the independence of both majorities and minorities would be preserved. This republic would provide better leadership by expanding the group of qualified persons from which delegates would be selected. The Federalist no. 10 by Madison, as mentioned before, was very influential in U. S. political history and philosophy. The separation of the three branches of the federal government had to be done, as the role of a check upon the other was played by each branch in the government Although these three branches were not completely separate the practicality of each division was assured by assigning it enough power to protect itself against the actions of the other division. Furthermore, if any branch exceeded its role as defined in the Constitution then the other branches could proceed by checking on the misuse of power. Moreover, it was also stated by the Publius that freedom was protected by the new Constitution by the provision of power to the central, as well as, state governments. Specific areas of power and simultaneous powers were determined by this new federalism. It was mentioned by the Publius that a central government with restricted powers was created by the Constitution. In this regard, identification of the Congress’s, as well as, President’s powers was also done. The people and the states were left with all the remaining powers completely. If the legislative body dishonored their power and authority bestowed on them then the people could substitute them during the regular elections ensured by the Constitution. On the other hand, if the President or the judiciary breached the confidence of the people, Congress could prosecute them and if convicted Congress could remove them from their designation and from their office. The debate that was going on was based on vocabulary that is circling around the gist of the thoughts constitutive of republican dialogue. They are liberty, tyranny, virtue, corruption, representation, and even republic. It has been said before, along with rationalizations, that the new created American republic was the combined efforts of Federalists and Anti-federalists. A new political system was created not by ordains of a single lawmaker but instead was fought to bring it to life and was constructed jointly by having a powerful discussion between supporters of different political affiliations and theoretical standpoints. â€Å"The ratification debate produced an enormous outpouring of newspaper articles, pamphlets, sermons, and tracts, both for and against the new design. Of the former The Federalist is by far the most famous and certainly the most widely read in our day. The Anti-federalist case against the Constitution, by contrast, is today rarely read or even remembered. Once described (and dismissed) as mere nay-Sayers and men of little faith, the Anti-federalists are now more often regarded as the other founders. † Knowledge of this debate over the ratification of the Constitution illustrates that Publius was from time to time vanquished by its adversaries. The views supported by Publius occasionally differed from the point of view of Hamilton and Madison in the Constitutional Convention and a large portion of the Americans and the delegates did not consent with The Federalist. Nonetheless, from the beginning Americans have depended on The Federalist as being the most reliable source for understanding the objectives of the framers. The essays presented a number of arguments. The essays convincingly made the case for a strong unification of the states in Federalist number 1 to 14, highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation in Federalist number 15 to 22, argued about the benefits of a strong energetic central government in number 23 to 36, and mentioned the republican governments capability to provide political steadiness as well as freedom in numbers 35 to 51. The essays following shortly after these scrutinized the roles of the three branches of government: the legislative numbers 52 to 66, the executive numbers 67 to 77, and the judicial numbers 78 to 83 along with the question of a bill of rights in Federalist number 84. The authors of the Federalist also reasoned the benefits of federalism. Furthermore, an impact on the United States law was done by the essays, which were written on the role of the federal judiciary for a long time now. Federalist essay number 78 consists of a vital defense of the belief of the judicial review that is the power which permits the U. S. Supreme Court to eliminate laws passed by Congress. In Federalist number 80 it is argued by Hamilton that it is important to establish system of federal courts, which are separate from state courts. The theories of the European philosophers of the Enlightenment have built the political philosophy of the Federalist. In addition, the Articles of Confederation, as well as, their experience by the United States, and historical examples have also been included. The treatise not only presented historical arguments and philosophical theories about the human nature and government, but also presented strong analysis of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. The general aim of the paper was to persuade the people that an energetic and strong centralized government would be more caring towards their freedom and independence. The philosophers’ thoughts were consideration of natural rights, and illustrated the kind of government best capable of protecting the rights of the people. They recognized that a person’s inclination towards self-protection, freedom, and selfishness would primarily come into conflict with the opposing needs of other people. Therefore, these philosophers maintained that the best type of government is one which balances the selfish needs of the human beings with the need of self-protection. The speculative thought that too much liberty can be terrible for an organized society was confirmed by the U. S government during the years of the Articles of Confederation. A shoddy amalgamation of independent states, as well as, the national government was provided by the articles. A specific legislative body was considered for the positioning of the articles. Affairs relating to the mutual defense were discussed and decided by the bestowed powers on this legislative body, which has been referred as the Congress. The creation of a strong central government has been fearfully taken like the Great Britain, a significant power with the state governments has been placed by the delegates, and national government has been restricted with the powers greatly. Lack of power for the enforcement of law, funds collection, trade regulation, and uniform judgment’s provision has been responsible for the hampering of the Congress. What is more, many intuitive leaders identified that the self-centeredness of the states would ultimately break the union and they also recognized that the Articles of Confederation presented no legal means to stop this collapse. States had clashes with each other over land, commerce regulations, and imposts against nearby states. States set up relations with foreign nations and declined to send tax money to Congress. The Virginia legislature called a delegate for the production of uniformity in trade, as well as, in the commerce. The meeting was meant for the discussion of uniform trade regulations with the interested delegates from the different states. In spite of the small presence of states at the Annapolis Convention, the meeting motivated states to hold another meeting for the explicit reason of modifying the Articles of Confederation. Sufficient power was not within a weak central government for the provision of security and protection of the civil liberties of individuals, as assumed by the delegates with the help of guidance from the Article of Confederation experience. Therefore, the delegates decided to entirely abolish the old system. The convention presented a new plan of government at the end of the summer of 1787, which was titled the U. S. Constitution. A strong central government was requested by this manuscript, in which all the other state governments will depend on this authoritative body and laws will be enforced, judged, and legislated by the bestowed powers to this body. The document was highly praised by the Federalists for the creation of energy in a centralized body. However, it was feared by the Anti-federalists that their rights and liberties would be infringed by the new plan. Strong and rational justifications were provided for each choice of the Constitution Convention by the Federalist papers. Citizens were also persuaded by the papers that greater protection could be provided by the government for the people, if the hands of people will be placed with less power. Although the concern about ratification of the U. S. Constitution in the New York state by Alexander Hamilton was originated with the document, ratification of the Constitution and its related essays were supported by the arguments of leaders in many states. Since the role of delegates to the Constitutional Convention was played by both Hamilton and Madison, the name Publius was used for all the published essays. As a large part for the constructing of document was done by the arguments, criticism as a subjective by these arguments was felt by them. Even after nine out of thirteen state approvals were received by the Constitution, two of the most powerful states, the New York and Virginia continued their struggle for the ratification. Technically, ratification of New York or Virginia did not have any effect on the Constitution. However the writing down the federalist essays was not a futile assignment, even though the Constitution turned out to be successful without New Yorks support. While an effort was made by them for the persuasion of the American audience, an opportunity was received by them for being associated with the first federal republic. A distinctive political philosophy was conveyed successfully by the Publius. Practice was possible, and philosophical theories and historical examples instituted this philosophy. Moist importantly, the experience during the accomplishment of the balance between order and freedom was the bases of this philosophy. â€Å"The Federalist Papers reflect the end of an era in America, a chapter that began with the Mayflower Compact of 1620 and the various covenants, declarations, and state constitutions that followed, and culminated in the Declaration of Independence and Constitution. During that period of more than a century and a half, American political thought was formulated and tried, and arguments were rehearsed and refined in press, pulpit, and legislative chamber, often to express opposition to the British crown, but also to give an expanding country a workable government. It was against such a background that The Federalist Papers emerged, combining the traits Robert A. Ferguson ascribes to the Constitution: generic strength, manipulative brilliance, cunning restraint, and practical eloquence. † The essays presented in The Federalists are fundamental and ground-breaking statements of sound rational political thought, which carefully progress ahead the essential thoughts mentioned by theorists Hume, Locke, and Montesquieu. Rather than radically deposing off the old theory and practice, the authors of the Constitution cautiously studied it and took its finest aspects and gave them a new meaning altogether. The essays of the Federalists had more life and were more strongly remembered than material written by Marx, Lenin, Mao, Castro, or Metternich. If there would have been no credible arguments against the proposed constitution then there would have been no need for the intense material of The Federalist. And, if there would have been no Federalist then understanding the Constitution would have been significantly reduced. The Constitution is a concise manuscript which is not suitable for an argument or for an explanation. The Federalist makes us understand the minds of the creators. Madison commented that The Federalist offers â€Å"the most authentic exposition of the text of the Federal Constitution, as understood by the Body which prepared and the authority which accepted it. † The Federalist justifies why the authors found the Articles of Confederation unacceptable; why they wanted to separate the powers of the government’s branches; why they split the national legislature into two different houses; why they thought that a federal court for the final appeal was desirable and necessary; why they banned titles of nobility; why they said that a bill of rights was a needless addition, and why a lot of other permissions and prohibitions were written into the Constitution or excludes completely. â€Å"As a contribution to the ratification debate, The Federalist is an extended exercise in exposition, explanation, and persuasion. As a work of political theory, then, The Federalist flies fairly close to the ground, rarely soaring into the stratosphere of philosophical abstraction. † Articles of Confederation If the Articles of Confederation would not have failed then there would have been no Constitution and surely no Federalist Papers. After two centuries it is not easy to picture the hectic state of America in the post revolutionary era. There was so much going on. America won a war but still the eastern seaboard was susceptible to attackers. Then the economy was weighed down by numerous currencies and tariffs, the state governments were bankrupt, and the central government was only central in name. Everything was hap hazard and nothing was going right. Since 1776 till 1787 America was an uncontrolled union of states which were ruled by the Articles of Confederation, which had a serious defect and that was the individual states had power and that power remained with them. The central government was just there to be called central. It could do nothing. It could neither increase revenues nor pass and ratify legislation necessary for independent states. To pass laws, nine votes out of thirteen states were necessary and an undisputed and agreed by all votes was essential to effect any basic change in the Articles. Making a central government with such weakness was deliberate because the American colonists had angrily rejected the British crowns authority to control trade and collect taxes. The governmental body created under the Articles of Confederation was basically immobilized, and there was no executive or judicial branch as well. What is more, the thirteen states had distinct political and commercial concerns and therefore a brief duration of artificial harmony among these states proved to be unsuccessful in producing a nationalized identity. What is surprising is that nine states had navies; seven printed their own currency, and the majority had tariff and customs laws. Also, New York was charging duties on ships transporting firewood or farm produce to and from neighboring states such as, New Jersey and Connecticut. When the soldiers mentioned that â€Å"New Jersey is our country, they were endorsing the prevailing emotions of other states. The insolvent state governments also contributed largely to the political turmoil of the 1780s. Hamilton harshly attacked the Articles of Confederation when he stated in Federalist No. 9 that the states promoted little, jealous, clashing, tumultuous commonwealths, the wretched nurseries of unceasing discord. Madison when writing Federalist No. 10 had the insolvent states in mind as well because he portrays the requirement to secure the national

Advantages Of Scripting Language Computer Science Essay

Advantages Of Scripting Language Computer Science Essay A scripting language is a form of programming language that is used to create scripts or bits of code. Scripting languages are often written to facilitate enhanced features of websites, these features are processed on the server but the script of a specific page runs on the users browser. The origin of the term was similar to its meaning in a movie script tells actors what to do: a scripting language controlled the operation of a normally-interactive program, giving it a sequence of work to do all in one batch. For instance, one could put a series of editing commands in a file, and tell an editor to run that script as if those commands had been typed interactively. Advantages of scripting language Its easy to learn and use Minimum programming knowledge or experience required Allows complex tasks to be performed in relatively few steps Allows simple creation and editing in a variety of task editors Allows the addition of dynamic and interactive activties to web pages The editing and running code is fast Disadvantages of scripting language Can be slower to run since they are interpreted and not compiled into machine code. Can be harder to debug since no development environment is available by default. Since they are text based it is easy for other people to modify and thus break it. Why modern web pages use javascript? Browser support- To access flash content you need to install flash plugin into your browser. But to use Javascript you dont need to install a plugin for it, becuase all web browsers have accepted javascript as a scripting language for them and provides support for it. With the use of javascript you can add various features like user authentication, validation etc Javascript easily reads and writes HTML elements and can be embedded into a HTML easily. You can use Javascript to load the page according to the requirement of the browser It is the most light programming language which can be easily loaded on slow internet. An action event can be created with the use of javascript, when a user clicks a button, various events which is not possible through HTML: Javascript has the ability to react on it. Explain the following features of JavaScript, giving an example of each: Objects Javascript has built in objects, some of them are string, date and array. Events A JavaScript can be executed when an event occurs, like when a user clicks on an HTML element. These events can occur when a user clicks the mouse, when a web page has loaded and when an image has been loaded. Methods There are a lot of javascript methods, some of them are anchor, apply, attend, big and blind. Each of these methods are different, for example an anchor method places an HTML anchor that has a NAME attribute around text, an apply method applied a method of an object substituting another object for the current object. Loops Javascript loops often runs with arrays these loops are used to run the same code over and over again, each time with a different value. For example in javascript for is a loop that loops through a block of code a number of times, while loop, loops through a block of code while a specified condition is true. Functions Javascripts has many functions some of them are abs, acos and asin. Each of these methods are different. Abs function returns the absolute value of a number, an acos function returns the arccosine of a number. JavaScript is an object orientated language. Describe what this means. Is JavaScript object-oriented? It has objects which can contain data and methods that act upon that data. Objects can contain other objects. It does not have classes, but it does have constructors which do what classes do, including acting as containers for class variables and methods. It does not have class-oriented inheritance, but it does have prototype-oriented inheritance. The two main ways of building up object systems are by inheritance (is-a) and by aggregation (has-a). JavaScript does both, but its dynamic nature allows it to excel at aggregation. JavaScript is not truly object oriented because it does not provide inheritance. But it turns out that JavaScript supports not only classical inheritance, but other code reuse patterns as well. Task 2 M2 Explain in detail how scripting languages can be used to improve the functionality of web pages. Scripting languages, which can be embedded within HTML, commonly are used to add functionality to a Web page, such as different menu styles or graphic displays or to serve dynamic advertisements. These types of languages are client-side scripting languages, affecting the data that the end user sees in a browser window. Why use Scripting Languages? Quite often we wish to automate a simple task running several programs in a row, installing programs, even writing a simple script or GUI to run a program that needs many parameters. Scripting languages allow us to write such a thing quickly, and run it without any compilation. They also have good support for launching processes and controlling them, parsing text files, etc. With a script, theres never the question of where is the source? or did i re-compile it after i fixed that bug? the script _is_ the source. Client side and Server side Client side In Client side the scripting does all the calculations on the users computer. The web browser or a specific plugin reads the script and converts it into a visual web page. Front end context uses scripting through a user interface. There are many ways a user interface uses scripting one is that it resizes parts of the webpage to make it all fit properly.It also resizes boxes. Most of the information that the user enters into the website stays in the client side and sometimes sent back to the server. Javascript can obtain external files and images. It then exploits all of this using web analytic programs, the server can retrieve all the information from all of these. The difference between client side à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ and server side The difference is fairly simple client side code is processed by the client (the browser to be more specific) while the server code is processed by the server . A typical web page as far as the client is concerned consists of some of HTML implemented by CSS, or Javascript. Server side code, on the other hand is never seen by the browser. The browser is not and should never need to be aware of server side scripts such as PHP. Server side code is browser independent which means that if the page you create looks different in internet explorer than it does in opera. Client Side advantages Allow for more interactivity by immediately responding to users actions May improve the usability of web sites for users whos browsers support scripts Can give developers more control over the look and behaviour of their web widgets Secure as it is protected which means it is not possible to read by users, prevents it from being stolen Client Side disadvantages Not all browsers support scripts therefore users might experience errors if no alternatives are provided Different browsers and browser versions support scripts differently thus more quality testing is required More development time and effort might be required Server side advantages Complex processes become more efficient Does not need to rely on specific browsers or plug ins You can make a webside dynamic, PHP a server side scripting language have features such as you can to add a username and password Server side disadvantages Less immediate Can slow down your web site E.g. AJAX, accessibility, alerts, confirming choices, prompting the user, redirecting the user, browser detection, creating rollovers, checking/validating input, handling forms, maintaining cookies Task 3 P5 (b) Design interactive scripts using scripting languages (JavaScript) that can be embedded onto the website created in assignment 1. Select 2 of the following (you may choose your own if you wish) that you must include into a minimum of two web pages: JavaScript slideshow Random image generator Browser version/type detection Software plug-in detection Feedback form using JavaScript validation For each of your chosen scripts produce: Design: A flow chart or Pseudo code Implementation: Annotated screen shots of the scripts in action on the web pages. Correct structure of HTML code which includes correct indentation of the code and well commented. M3 (b) Printouts of the scripts Testing: P6 (b) A test table containing the variables being tested, test data, expected results and actual results. Task 4: D1 Investigate and produce a report (minimum 1 page) that explains at least three examples of how web pages using scripts are implemented differently in two different browsers, for example, Internet Explorer and Firefox. Browser capability Browsers have varying levels of compliance with Style Sheets. This means that some Style Sheet features are supported and some arent. To confuse things more, some browser manufacturers decide to come up with their own proprietary tags. Fortunately, browser compatibility is becoming less of an issue as the latest browser versions are much more standards-compliant than their earlier counterparts. Browser capability is a headache for Javascript coders around the world. There are two ways to allow conditions within your script such as Javascript to take different paths depending on capability These two ways are: 1. Browser detection 2. Object detection Browser detection Browser detection checks with the browser directly to see which make and model it is. This allows you to choose which code to run on your browser. Browser detection is capable of working out the browser and version being used. This allows the web page to use the right code which is to visually display. Browser detection coding function thisBrowserIs(browserTest){ if(navigator.userAgent.indexOf(browserTest)!=-1){ return true; } } This is an example of browser detection coding. This code means that if it can find the string being passed to this function within the navgator user agent property, then return true Object detection Object detection allows you to check if an aspect of the script language definition exists before trying to use it. It means that the script can detect whether certain objects can work with a specific browser. Object detection example: if (document.images) { do something with the images array } Separate style sheets You want to make sure that your style sheets works on most internet browsers. There is different coding with different browsers. Creating Separate Style Sheets for Internet Explorer and Firefox IE and Mozilla handle CSS instructions differently. It can be annoying but, there is a way to get around it. Make multiple style sheets, one for each type of browser. Then customize each style sheet for its corresponding browser. Create two style sheets, one for IE browsers) and one for every other kind of browser Tell Internet Explorer to use a separate style sheet by inserting the following code between your header tags. Change the name and path of the css files to that of the css files on your site. The code must appear in this order. Task 5: D2 Write a report that evaluates the website that you have created stating good points, bad points and discuss at least four different methods that could be used to improve the created web site. I created a website to a book shop called Harlington book store. It took me 3 weeks to completely finish the website with all the books and prices. As I had previous experience in creating websites this website was quite enjoyable to create. I used three main colours on my website so it would look more professional and creative. I included 9 pages to this website and I have created a menu bar so the user can navigate to these pages. To make this website user friendly I have created alt tags and I have checked the browser capability of the website. During this period I had many problems creating the website such as I had to upload the books one by one with prices and for each book I had to download the book cover. This took me more than a week to finish all the books. Another problem I faced was when I had to resize all the images of the book to the same size. Uploading the books were the most hated part when creating this website apart from that creating the website was very enjoyable. One thing to improve this website would be to create a database so when updating the books can be automatically uploaded on the website instead of uploading on the website itself. Checklist for Assignment 2: JavaScript Implementation Content Y/N Comments TASK 1: Describe the main features of the chosen scripting language (P3) Explain what a scripting language is and why is it used in the modern web pages Objects Events Methods Loops Functions JavaScript is an object orientated language. Describe what this means. TASK 2: (M2) Explain in detail how scripting languages can be used to improve the functionality of web pages. TASK 3: Design, create and test web pages using scripts to implement interactivity. (P5 b) (P6 b) (M3 b) Script 1: A flow chart or Pseudo code Screen shots of the scripts in action on the web page. Comment and indent your code Printouts of the scripts A test table for the script Script 2: A flow chart or Pseudo code Screen shots of the scripts in action on the web page. Comment and indent your code Printouts of the scripts A test table for the script Task 4: (D1) How scripts are implemented differently in two different browsers. (3 Examples) Task 5: (D2) Website Evaluation

Solar Energy Essay -- Essays Papers

Solar Energy Since the beginning of humanity, people have relied on the sun for their daily needs. Whether it is to grow the crops that they eat, dry clothes or warm their family, people have relied on the resource of the sun for sustainability. It was not until people started to get the idea of managing this energy source, that people were able to fully take advantage of the sun. In 1767, a Swiss scientist discovered a practical way to harness the energy of the sun. Horace de Saussure invented the â€Å"solar hot box,† the first devise to attract and capture the energy capabilities of the sun. The main uses of this primitive solar box consisted of cooking food, distilling water and pumping water for irrigation. It was not until the 1880’s that America caught on to this new source of energy. Introduced by John Ericcson, this engineer created solar power engines, used for power steam generators onboard ships. The most famous person credited with exposing solar capabilities to the west, however, was Clarence Kemp, the first man to patent solar water heaters in 1897. His invention caught on so well, that within seven years, thirty-percent of houses in California were using his invention. This was just the beginning of solar energy’s popularity within the US. In 1908, Carnegie Steel Company’s William J. Bailey produced the solar panels we are most familiar with today. The popularity of the solar power boom peaked around the end of World War I, when â€Å"more than 4,000 rooftop solar water heaters had been sold, and more than 60,000 were in place† (EIA). Shortly after this, scientists discovered the possibilities of solar energy in space. Even to date, many satellites and space projects take advantage of this renewable... ...olar energy has undergone many stages throughout its existence, especially within the United States. At the beginning of its discovery, carried out through its peak in popularity around the 40’s and 50’s, solar energy enjoyed its time in the spot light. Due to limits on where solar plants can be built, inefficiency, unreliability and high prices, the use of this fairly environmentally friendly, renewable energy source has dwindled. While some hope for advances in the methods of collecting solar energy, currently it does not have the ability to meet our world’s ever-growing consumption of energy. Works Cited - â€Å"Current Uses and Future Prospects.† . - Energy Information Administration (EIA). The U.S. Government.. - â€Å"Solar Power.† Energy Matters. .

Lethal Tools of Our Past-Weapons of The Frontier :: essays research papers fc

Lethal Tools of Our Past- Weapons of The Frontier   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A starving man paves his own highway with the calloused soles of his hunger. Out on the untamed wastelands, forests, and prairies it was the way of the gun, the knife, and the axe for all that managed to survive. And survive these brave men and women did with a sheer will of endurance that the pampered of today’s world has not come to know even the shadow of. In our modern comfort we live in what legacy these bold souls carved out of this nation, and much of the thanks we must give is passed to the sweat-hewned implements of their survival, the weapons of the frontier.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scourging the countryside for this evening’s meal or simply keeping wary of impending danger, one often felt naked without a trustworthy gun at their side. A firearm often made one feel invincible, for the power of a bullet could protect the weakest and cowardly from even the strongest and fiercest of animals and people. In it’s use it proved to be an action that spoke louder than words, many a quarrel has been put to rest through this instrument, whose music is often not one of good cheer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The rifle and the coveted shotgun, literally brought home the bacon. With sleek models such as the Winchester .44 in 1873, accurate targeting sights increased a hunter’s ability to take down his prey, even from large distances, often exceeding 200 yards. The other weapon of choice, the shotgun, did not boast a straight, clean shot, but had the capacity to tear anything to shreds in a single blast. A short barrel provided the advantage of a wider blast range and easier handling (Trachtman et al 50). In many battles, the shotguns were often preferred for their simplifying features.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the frequently lawless country that the United States had become, a quicker solution for combat was deemed necessary. It did not take long for such handguns as the 1873 Colt Peacemaker to emerge as the weapon of choice for gunfighter, cowboy, sheriff or civilian. Fighting men everywhere considered the peacemaker’s balance and durability superior to that of other revolvers of the day, and they expressed their appreciation by clamoring for a variety of versions – some decorative or modified for a fast draw, others were plain, but all were lethal (Trachtman et al 43). With a growing consideration of violence, many Americans rushed to buy them in large quantities, often through the mail.

Virtuality vs. Reality

Your Name Eng. 111-01 Teachers Name Virtuality Vs. Reality Computers have become one of the most sought-after devices to date. One reason perhaps is the overwhelming popularity of the internet. Seems as if no one is immune to using the internet and even some restaurants offer free wi-fi for their patrons. There is virtually nothing that can't be done on the internet.Because of its popularity, everyday millions of people log on the internet either for online shopping, socializing, or researching. Going to malls and department stores may soon be a past activity for the busy person due to the popularity of shopping on the internet. People may chose shopping online because it is very convenient, cheap, and variety is offered right at a person's finger tips. First of all, the convenience of shopping online is very time saving, and it eliminates the need to drive around to several different stores searching for that perfect gift.For example, a person can shop right at home using a smartph one, a laptop, or an Ipad in the convenience of her own bed. In addition to being convenient, online shopping can be money saving. Searching for deals online can save an individual a lot of money. Besides finding deals on the internet; moreover, staying home, and purchasing online can also save tremendously on gas expenses. While saving money is a good asset of shopping online, included in shopping online is the wide selections of websites to chose from.Depending on what a person is looking there is always something unique that can be found shopping online. Since there are so many stores available right in the palm of one's hand, why would anyone want to leave home? In brief, if one makes up her mind to stay home and do online shopping, she would not only be saving time and money but can also have the world wide web of shopping readily available at her finger tips. Having considered shopping online to being popular for the busy person, it is also reasonable to look at socializing th rough the internet as a preferred way that most timid people communicate.One example of social communicating online is the constant use of Facebook. People from all walks of life, from different ages, different nationalities, and social classes sign on to Facebook everyday to keep up with the statuses of their Facebook friends, comment on their statuses, or to simply see how their friends are doing. An individual can also use Facebook to stay in contact with far away family members, to search for missing family members, to communicate with old classmates, or to play online games with their Facebook acquaintances.In addition to connecting with people on Facebook, there are several online gaming websites that cater to a more eccentric way of socializing. For instance, a game called, â€Å"World of Warcraft† is a widely played game where one can socialize with another individual through in-game chat messaging. In this online gaming world, individuals can communicate with one ano ther, help each other complete missions, and conquer the game. Online gaming is also an easier way of conversing for a person who is intimidated by meeting new people in real-life.Finally, a person can meet new people through online dating more simply than meeting them in person. Online dating would eliminate the nervousness one feels in real-life and would give way to a more relaxed person. Not only will an individual be more comfortable, but online dating would allow her to be more herself. Individuals who engage in online dating can socialize through messaging, email, the dating website, or cell phones. There are several different ways using the internet can bring people together whether it be Facebook, online gaming, or online dating.Thirdly, conducting research online is another important feature of the internet and adds to its popularity. For example, a student has a project due at school and instead of spending hours looking in a library,the student, on the other hand, can go right to a computer and find all the information he needs to complete his project. Not only can a student find research material for his school project, but can also find ideas for craft projects. Searching online can be very helpful when it comes to â€Å"do-it-yourself† projects.Mothers can go online to research craft ideas she and her child can do together as family time. Moreover, mothers can not only find â€Å"do-it-yourself† projects, but can use the internet for researching recipes. There are thousands and thousands of databases full of recipes. From easy thirty minutes meals, to crockpot cookers, and baked goods, characteristics of these recipes can be found on several different websites. For instance, if an individual wants to find a recipe for banana read, all that one would need to do is to go online and Google banana bread recipes. In conclusion, with people using the computer every day, it is no wonder that the internet has become so popular. Because an individual can shop, socialize, and research areas of interest on the computer, society has become dependent on the internet. The ultimate question is have we as a society become more comfortable with machine than to come face to face with man.